Classic theories
- Maslow's hierarchy of needs (1943) - from physiological needs through safety, belonging and esteem to self-actualisation. The model is very popular, though research has not confirmed a strict hierarchy.
- Herzberg's two-factor theory (1959) - hygiene factors (pay, conditions, policies) remove dissatisfaction but do not motivate; motivators (achievement, recognition, the work itself, responsibility, growth) build engagement.
- McGregor's Theory X and Y (1960) - a leader who assumes people dislike work (X) controls; a leader who assumes people seek responsibility (Y) delegates. Leaders' assumptions often become self-fulfilling.
Self-determination theory
The best-documented contemporary theory of motivation is self-determination theory by Edward Deci and Richard Ryan. It identifies three basic psychological needs:
| Need | Meaning | What a leader can do |
|---|---|---|
| Autonomy | a sense of acting by one's own choice | give choice, explain “why”, delegate |
| Competence | a sense of effectiveness and growth | match challenges, teach, give feedback |
| Relatedness | a sense of belonging | build bonds, appreciate, care |
Research shows that external rewards can undermine intrinsic motivation for tasks people already enjoy (Deci, Koestner, Ryan, 1999). Daniel Pink popularised these findings in Drive (2009), pointing to autonomy, mastery and purpose.
Meaning
Viktor Frankl, founder of logotherapy, showed that the deepest human motivation is the will to meaning. People engage most strongly when they know why they are doing something and whom it serves - see golden circle, vision.
Motivation in volunteering
In Church communities almost everyone is a volunteer - there are no salaries or promotions. All the more important are: a sense of mission and meaning, relationships and community, opportunities to grow and use one's gifts, appreciation, clear tasks and spiritual motivation - service to God and neighbour. See transactional leadership, path-goal theory.
Sources
A. H. Maslow, A theory of human motivation, Psychological Review 50 (1943) F. Herzberg, B. Mausner, B. Snyderman, The Motivation to Work, Wiley 1959 D. McGregor, The Human Side of Enterprise, McGraw-Hill 1960 E. L. Deci, R. Koestner, R. M. Ryan, A meta-analytic review of experiments examining the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation, Psychological Bulletin 125 (1999) R. M. Ryan, E. L. Deci, Self-Determination Theory, Guilford Press 2017 D. H. Pink, Drive, Riverhead 2009 V. E. Frankl, Man's Search for Meaning